Child abuse or maltreatment can be broadly defined as harm to a child by a parent or guardian, involving neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse or exploitaiton, and mental abuse. This treatment can occur once or over an extended period of time and can be both violence inflicted in person and online. The likelihood for child abuse is based on several factors related to a child, a parent or guardian, and the community and environment they live in.

For example, children in infancy or at an early developmental status are increasingly vulnerable to abuse due to their small physical size and need for constant care. Children with disabilities or severe medical conditions and illnesses may also be at increased risk due to the demands of care they require, which may overwhelm a parent and increase feelings of anger, stress, and resentment. Factors that contribute to a parent’s likelihood to inflict abuse against children include substance abuse, unresolved mental health conditions, lack of education, prior history of abuse or trauma, and adolescent parenting.

Environmentally, families that struggle with economic instability, health issues, or domestic/intimate partner violent may also be more vulnerable to incidents of child abuse and neglect. Community factors such as increased levels of neighborhood poverty, housing instability, and food insecurity also may create an exasperated environment that increases stress and tension in a household, potentially leading to abuse or neglect. Due to structural economic, social, and cultural discrimination against minority communities, these groups may be disproportionally impacted by child violence, poverty, and neglect. Frequently, many of these factors overlap with each other, potentially creating a high-stress environment that increases child vulnerability and the likelihood that abuse and neglect occur.

Child abuse is a crime that is actively combatted by all three jurisdicitons within the DMV. Under SDG 16, Target 2 (SDG 16.2) specifically calls to “end abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children.” A primary indicator of this target is the proportion of children aged 1 to 17 who experience physical punishment or psychological abuse by a caregiver. The following is an overview of how the District of Columbia (DC), Maryland (MD), and Virginia (VA), are tracking, combating, and criminalizing child abuse within the blueprint of SDG inidcators. For the purposes of this study, and in connection with indicators 2 and 3 of SDG 16.2, which aim to combat human trafficking and sexual abuse respectively, this analysis will include data on physical, emotional, and sexual child abuse.

District of Columbia (DC)

Under Chapter 13 and Chapter 16 of DC Code, child abuse is defined as infliction of physical or mental injury, sexual abuse or exploitation, and/or negligent mistreatment of a child, with several specifications. First, the code specifies that the infliction of physical or mental injury includes specific acts of discipline considered unreasonable and severe, including burning, biting, cutting, striking with a closed fist, shaking, kicking, interfering with a child’s breathing or inflicting non accidental injury to a child under 18 month. Second, Chapter 16 defines sexual exploitation includes incidents in which a parent or guardian allows a child to engage in prostitution, pornograhy, or other sexual conduct. Finally, Chapter 16 also defines Negligent mistreatment as the failure to provide adequate food, clothing, shelter, or medical care.

Further, Chapter 11 of Title 22 of DC Code outlines specific definitions for cruelty to children, refusal or neglect by parents or guardians, along with charges and penalties against children under the age of 14. Specifically, for cruelty to children in the first degree, violators may receive up to 15 years in prison, a $10,000 fine, or both. Withsecond degree offenses, a violator may receive a misdemeanor charge, up to 10 years in prison and a fine. Neglect may result in imprisonment for up to three months.

The primary government agency responsible for handling instances of child abuse and neglect in DC is the Children and Family Services Agency (CFSA). CFSA promotes child welfare through four main functions: taking and investigating reports of child abuse and neglect, assisting famililes, providing safe out-of-home care, and re-establishing permanent homes for children. CFSA is supported by the Office of the Attorney General for DC, which provides guidance on mandatory reporting and child sex abuse crimes. DC requires the following professions to serve as mandatory reporters: school officials, teachers, athletic coaches, day care employees, parks and recreation employees, public housing managers, social workers, medical professionals, law enforcement, humane officers, mental health professionals, CFSA employees, domestic violence counselors, and human trafficking counselors. Reporters are required to provide the name, address, age, and gender of a child, their primary care taker, and nature and extent of the abuse before CFSA begins their investigation. Depending on the outcome of the investigation, a child removed from their parents as a result of neglect or abuse may be placed in foster care with the goal of eventual familial reunification, adoption, alternative permanent housing, custody change, or other legal guardianship.

To evaluate agency activities, CFSA releases an annual public report on the state of child welfare in DC as mandated under the DC Adoption and Safe Families Amendment Act of 2000, providing statistical analysis and ongoing endeavors by the agency to combat child abuse and neglect through the foster care system. In February 2022, CFSA released the 2021 Annual Public Report, reporting the number of children in foster care, primary reasons for foster care placement, and length of stay. In 2021, CFSA recorded 614 children in foster care, about 80% of which identified as African American, and 15% as Hispanic. Of the 614 cases, 381 children were formally committed to foster care by the DC Family Court. 280 foster care residents have the primary goal of eventual reunification with their families, while 157 residents will begin the adoption process.

The primary reasons for foster care placement in 2021 was neglect, which comprised 186 cases, physical abuse (38 cases), and drug abuse (34 cases). Sexual abuse accounted for eight cases, while the least common reasons, with two or fewer reported cases, were inadequate housing, death or incarceration of parents, child’s disability, or voluntary admittance. 320 of the 614 cases comprised multiple reasons, and therefore were identified as “unique children.”. Beyond foster care-related data, CFSA reported 4,177 investigations of child abuse and neglect in FY 2021, in which 64% were unfounded, and 24% were substantiated, and the remaining 12% were either incomplete or inconclusive. No child fatalities were reported in FY 2021. As of September 2022, 3,498 investigations of child abuse and neglect have taken place in FY 2022, 64% of which are unfounded, and 22% of which are substantiated. These numbers are based on reports the agency receives through their child abuse and neglect hotline and through mandatory reporting requirements.

The report also evaluates the DC government services and their effectiveness for combatting child abuse and neglect through foster care services. CFSA does not have a numerical goal for the number of children in foster care, but has achieved a trending decline in the number of the foster care population since 2016, which was the first year the population was less than 1,000. CFSA emphasizes a community-based partnership approach to provide familial and foster services, including case management support, emergency family flex funds, educational workshops, whole family enrichment, motivational interviewing, and parent education and support programs (PESP). In 2019, CFSA launched a five-year Family First Prevention Plan, which provides three key family preservation services to DC residents in underserved areas through 10 “Family Success Centers.: These services include:

- - Family Unification Program (FUP): A service providing Section 8 Housing Vouchers through the DC Housing Authority Housing Choice Vouchers Program to provide CFSA-involved families permanent housing.
  - Rapid Housing Assistance Program (RHAP): A service providing short-term rental assistance for families and older youth to prevent foster care admittance due to housing instability.
  - Family Treatment Court (FTC): A court-supervised, voluntary residential substance abuse program for caregivers who are involved in a child neglect case.

CFSA also manages adoption promotion and support services for pre- and post-adoptive parents, outreach for prospective adoptive parents, and for children with the goal of adoption. CFSA creates individualized adoption plans for each child or sibling group and works with the Family Works Together Program, administered by the non-profit Adoptions Together, Inc, to provide therapy services, social worker training, and support groups.

DC also utilizes several performance measuring and monitoring services to ensure the effectiveness of CFSA. First, the Center for the Study of Social Policy (CSSP) independently assessed DC performance for family services based on the 2010 LaShawn Implementation and Exit Plan (IEP), a result of 1989 class action lawsuit LaShawn A v. Fenty, which accused DC of violating Title IV-E of the Social Security Act, DC Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect Act of 1977, the DC Youth Residential Facilities Licensor Act of 1986, and the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, resulting in insufficient care and resources for foster children. The plan originally detailed 85 monitoring benchmarks for CFSA performance, but was eventually decreased to 24 in 2019. In 2021, CFSA was deemed eligible to begin transitioning out of LaShawn IEP monitoring and is currently in a contractual period to meet additional commitments to improving the foster care system before final settlement.

Additionally, CFSA uses a quarterly measurement based on the agency’s Four Pillars Strategic Framework, which includes key measures from the LaShawn IEP. These measurements are in the form of a scorecard to determine how well the agency adheres to the pillars of: Front Door, in which children are only removed from homes as a last resort, Temporary Safe Haven: using foster care as an interim place for children with the intention of returning to a permanent home, Well-Being: providing a nurturing environment for children, and Exit to Permanence: Ensuring every child exists foster care as quickly as possible to a save environment. Finally, in 2020, CFSA launched a public dashboard to provide data transparency for the general public, with the intention to update every fiscal quarter. In 2021, CFSA received a 92% overall satisfaction rating for practice performance, with 86% of cases reporting acceptable ratings for child and family status.

Going forward, CFSA has identified four key target areas to further improve DC foster services: expanding the assessment of fathers, managing chronic health concerns, planning interventions, and increasing support and services for those who are not children or biological parents, but are still involved in CFSA cases. CFSA also intends to amend DC regulations to conform to best practices for foster homes, clarify the staff-to-child ratios in foster homes, and amend the Grandparent and Close Relative Caregivers Amendment Act of 2021 to remove a six-month residency requirement for the caregiver before being eligible to qualify as a location for permanent housing. These actions are intended to take place in FY2022, and will be followed up on in the next year’s annual report.

In addition to CFSA, there are several non profits within the District that work to combat child abuse and neglect. One of the main organizations is Safe Shores– the DC Children’s Advocacy Center, a direct service organization that supports child victims of sexual and physical abuse. Safe Shores provies intervention and therapy services for victims through a facility of medical and mental health professionals, social services professionals, victim advocates, law enforcement, and prosecutors. Safe Shores directs reports of abuse through the National Child Abuse hotline. Several other nation-wide nonprofits also have DC chapters, including Childhelp, which provides advocacy, intervention, treatment, and prevention strategies to improve family resilience and community outreach for at-risk children, and Court Appointed Special Advocates (CASA) for Children of DC, which promotes court-appointed volunteer advocacy to support abused and neglected children in the DC foster care system.

Maryland (MD)

In Maryland, there are a robust set of laws and codes for child abuse, splitting the crimes into four categories: phsyical, emotional, sexual, and neglect. Maryalnd law defines child abuse as “physical injurty sustained by a minor as a result of cruel of inhumane treatment and injury as the result of a malicious act under circumstances that indicate the child’s health or welfare was in harm or threatened by result of the act.” Physical abuse applies to any non-accidental injury to a child from a parent or guardian, while emotional abuse applies to situations in which a parent or guardian communicated in a way to intentionally make a child feel unloved, unwanted, or endangered. Child sexual abuse applies broadly to any sexual contact or behavior with a minor, including the exploitation of children for commercial sex acts. Finally, neglect is also considered a form of child abuse in Maryland, and is not differentiated as a separate crime as in other states. Neglect is defined as an incident in which a parent or guardian repeatedly fails to provide for a child’s basic needs, including food, shelter, medical care, education, and emotional support.

Further, Maryland splits the crime of child abuse into two penalty categories: first and second degree, with additional penalties for neglect, and sexual abuse of a minor. First-degree child abuse convictions are felonies, with a prison sentence between 25 and 40 years depending on the severity of the crime. Second-degree child abuse is a misdemeanor conviction receiving a fine up to $10,000 and up to five years in perison. Crimes dealing with child neglect can receive a felony conviction and up to 15 years in prison, while sexual abuse of a minor, also a felony, can result in up to 25 years in prison.

There are two primary government offices that deal with child abuse cases in Maryland. First, the Department of Human Services (MD DHS), which includes Child Protective Services (CPS), provides support for children believed to be neglected or abused by a parent or guardian. CPS provides mandatory reporter training, household intervention, and other services including alternate placement. In Maryland, alternate placement into foster care is considered a last resort strategy. Additionally, MD DHS includes Child Support Services, which provides financial, medical, and emotional support to children and their families. In Maryland, mandatory reports include health practitioners, educators, human service workers, or law enforcement. MD DHS also released an initial plan in October 2019 entitled “Maryland’s Child Maltreatment Fatality Review Plan,” which described a comprehensive review process for addressing cases involving child fatalities due to maltreatment and neglect through a multidisciplinary approach involving legal, medical, and social services professionals.

MD DHS and CPS utilizes two responses for reports of child mismanagement: investigative response and alternative response. Investigative response is utilized for reports meeting the criteria for high or moderate risk to a child’s safety, while alternative response is for low risk reports. The investigative response involves thorough fact finding and requires a formal finding at the end of a case, resulting in potential removal of children from their parent or guardian. Alternative investigations allow for more flexibility based on the specific circumstances of a case and allow for a wider range of remediation methods to prevent further maltreatment.

The second government office in MD is the Governor’s Office for Children, founded in 2015 to reduce childhood hunger, improve outcomes for disconnected youth, reduce the impact of parental incarceration on children and families, and to reduce youth homelessness. The Office achieves these goals through youth engagement via the MD Youth Advisory Council, providing home visits to improve maternal and child health and provide essential services, and to increase education access to children in need. The office also maintains resources, definitions, and legal information related to the crimes of child maltreatment, as well as basic data analysis for child abuse statistics in the state.

According to the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Maryland had a general population of children (under 18 years) of 1,333,919 in 2020, 10.3% of which lived in poverty. Of this population, 7,242 were identified as child maltreatment victims, with 29,852 subject to investigations due to reports of alleged abuse. 50 of these investigations involved child fatalities. 37% of the children involved in these cases identified as Black, while 23% were White, and 9% were hispanic. 28% of children were not identified by race. The primary type of maltreatment in MD in 2020 was neglect, comprising 62% of cases, followed by sexual abuse (30%) and physical abuse (20%).The data does not differentiate whether or not multiple types of abuse were present in a single case. At the end of FY 2019, 3,839 children were in foster care, with 370 waiting for adoption. The overall number of victims in 2020 was less than in 2017, 2018, and 2019, which all reported more than 7,500 victims.

In addition, Maryland also has several nonprofits that complement government agencies to protect and support victims of child abuse and neglect. For example, The Maryland Children’s Alliance, a chapter of the national nonprofit National Children’s Alliance, acts as a facilitator of children’s advocacy centers across the state. The Alliance provides support services to existing and emergency centers to ensure that every Maryland county has collaborative, evidence-based investigative and support services for child abuse victims. The Alliance supports 24 local advocacy centers that promote a set of best practices to support victims. Another national nonprofit, Prevent Child Abuse America, also has a Maryland chapter, based in Blatimore, and utilizes several programs to provent child abuse, inlcuding the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Interface, the Enough Abuse program, which focuses on child sex abuse, Positive Parenting Programming, Family Connect, and Health Families America. Prevent Child Abuse Maryland also utilizes its Protective Factors Framework to provide home visits and training. Finally, a local example is Child Justice, a nonprofit law firm that services families in Maryland and the Washington DC area in the form of pro bono legal aid and resources to support children and parents.

Virginia (VA)

Similar to the state of Maryland, Virginia categorizes child abuse and neglect crimes into four categories under Virginia Code 63.2: physical abuse, negligence, sexual abuse and exploitation, and emotional abuse. Physical abuse is defined as incidents in which parents or guardians “threaten to inflict or create or give permission to inflict or create a mental or physical injury” that can result in disfigurement, impairment of bodily functions or cognitive ability, or injuries that can lead to death as a result of intentional harm, lack of supervision, or accidents. Physical abuse also includes incidents in which a child is exposed to the manufacturing of a Schedule I or Schedule II substance or sale of that substance. Neglect is defined as incidents in which parents or guardians refuse to provide necessary care for a child’s health or are unavailable to provide care due to unreasonable absence or due to physical or mental issues. Sexual abuse and exploitation includes any sexual act, including exploitation, involving any child under the age of 18. Finally, emotional abuse is defined as incidents in which parents or guardians inflict or allow the infliction of mental injuries that can permanently or temporarily impair cognitive functions.

Under Virginia Law, Parents and gaurdians accused and convicted of child abuse or neglect will receive a Class 4 Felony charge, which comes with a fine up to $100,000 and 2 to 10 years in prison . Perpetrators whose abuse resulted is deemed to show “a reckless disregard of human life” are charged with a Class 6 felony, which results in a fune of $2500 and up to five years in prison. Class 6 felonies are considered “wobblers,” in which a crime could also be considered a misdemeanor, depending on the circumstances.

Virginia Code 63.2 also establishes the key government agencies responsible for addressing and combatting child abuse and neglect in the state. First is the establishment of a Child-Protective Services Unit (CPS), a sub agency of the VA Department of Social Services (DSS). DSS and CPS operate a state-wide CPS hotline to support local law enforcement and social services by filtering reports of alleged maltreatment. CPS also organizes prevention services to strenghten families to prevent the occurance of child abuse and neglect and the likelihood of a child moving to out of home care, such as a foster home. CPS tailors these services based on the target population, degree of trauma of specific cases, and the intervention of local law enforcement and social services. CPS provides in-home services to address child safety and risk factors, and prevent further abuse through interventions, engagement, and training. CPS Prevention Services are based on a manual that outlines the importance of early involvement, strength-based family engagement approaches, and training and education for parents and family members.

VA DSS also utilizes a Virginia Child Protection and Accountability System, which makes data on rep orted cases of child abuse publically avaialble. Data is collected from State Police, Circuit Courts, Juvenile and Domestic Relations Courts, and the Criminal Sentencing Commission, with the goal of identifying key trends in child abuse and neglect cases in order to improve crime response, support services for victims, and new legislation. This system also includes reports from mandatory reporters, who inlcude medical professionals, hospital resident, social workers, law enforcement, educators, child care professionals, mental health professionals, mediators, public employees, athletic coaches and Boy Scout/Girl Scout leaders, religious officials, and domestic violence and sexual assault advocates.

The VA judicial system also has a robust set of resources, guidelines, and assistance to combat child abuse in parntership with VA DSS and CPS. VA courts are responsible for issuing child protective orders, removal orders, preliminary protective orders, emergency removal orders, and organizing Court Appointed Special Advocates (CASA) activities to support child victims. CASA serves as a representative for children involved in neglect or abuse cases, working closely with their legal team by reviewing background information, interviewing relevant persons, and making recommendations for placement and services. CASA professionals are also responsible for ensuring a child receives court-ordered services.

According to VA DSS, in FY 2020 CPS completed 33,380 reports of child abuse, 6,265 of which were unfounded. These reports involved 52,554 children, the majority of which were aged 4-11 and identified as White (68%) and Black (31%). The primary form of abuse in founded investigations were physical neglect, at 58% of cases, followed by physical abuse at approximately 26%, and sexual abuse at approximately 10%. Additionally, there were 136 valid reports of child fatalities suspected to be caused by abuse or neglect, 29 of which were considered to have founded suspicions. In 2021, VA CPS reported 120,264 total referrals to their agency, 63,618 of which were accepted, and 7.723 of which were considered founded. Of the founded cases, 4,472 were cases involving physical neglect, 1,780 involved physical abuse, and 868 involved sexual abuse. Data on child abuse is updated annually through the Virginia Child Protection and Accountability System by relevant government agencies.

VA DSS and CPS are closely connected to state nonprofits through community partnerships in order to provide the best care for victims. These comunity partners include Hugs and Kisses, an educational program to teach children about signs of sexual and physical abuse, Healthy Families Virginia, a home vistation service, and Child Advocacy Centers (CACs), which are child-focused, facility-based programs that utilize multidisciplinary teams to support investigation, treatment, intervention, and prosecution. At present, there are 19 CACs in Virginia, which are federally funded through the Victims of Crime Act and are accredited by the National Children’s Alliance Virginia chapter, known as the Child Advocacy Centers of Virginia (CACVA). VA DSS also receives funds through the federal government’s Community Based Child Abuse Prevention (CBCAP) program, which are used to support the development of community-based prevention programs.

Other nonprofits include Voices for Virginia’s Children, an independent, multi-issue child policy and advocacy organization that focuses on data collection to indicate child well being and support for children of traditionally underserved communities, and Families Forward Virgnina, a nonprofit that focuses on disrupting the cycles of child abuse, neglect, and poverty through home visiting progrma, education, professional development, and advocacy and public awareness campaigns. In the DMV area, Stop Child Abuse Now (SCAN) of Northern Virginia (NOVA) focuses soleyl on preventing child abuse in the NOVA region through increasing family support, improving government institutions, increasing public awareness, and engaging in child advocacy.